Boolean "and" operator.

Provides a short-circuit operator that evaluates and returns the second expression only if the first one evaluates to a truthy value (neither false nor nil). Returns the first expression otherwise.

Not allowed in guard clauses.

Examples

iex> Enum.empty?([]) && Enum.empty?([])
true

iex> List.first([]) && true
nil

iex> Enum.empty?([]) && List.first([1])
1

iex> false && throw(:bad)
false

Note that, unlike and/2, this operator accepts any expression as the first argument, not only booleans.

@spec list() ++ term() :: maybe_improper_list()

List concatenation operator. Concatenates a proper list and a term, returning a list.

The complexity of a ++ b is proportional to length(a), so avoid repeatedly appending to lists of arbitrary length, for example, list ++ [element]. Instead, consider prepending via [element | rest] and then reversing.

If the right operand is not a proper list, it returns an improper list. If the left operand is not a proper list, it raises ArgumentError.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

iex> [1] ++ [2, 3]
[1, 2, 3]

iex> 'foo' ++ 'bar'
'foobar'

# returns an improper list
iex> [1] ++ 2
[1 | 2]

# returns a proper list
iex> [1] ++ [2]
[1, 2]

# improper list on the right will return an improper list
iex> [1] ++ [2 | 3]
[1, 2 | 3]

@spec list() -- list() :: list()

List subtraction operator. Removes the first occurrence of an element on the left list for each element on the right.

Before Erlang/OTP 22, the complexity of a -- b was proportional to length(a) * length(b), meaning that it would be very slow if both a and b were long lists. In such cases, consider converting each list to a MapSet and using MapSet.difference/2.

As of Erlang/OTP 22, this operation is significantly faster even if both lists are very long, and using --/2 is usually faster and uses less memory than using the MapSet-based alternative mentioned above. See also the Erlang efficiency guide.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

iex> [1, 2, 3] -- [1, 2]
[3]

iex> [1, 2, 3, 2, 1] -- [1, 2, 2]
[3, 1]

The --/2 operator is right associative, meaning:

iex> [1, 2, 3] -- [2] -- [3]
[1, 3]

As it is equivalent to:

iex> [1, 2, 3] -- ([2] -- [3])
[1, 3]

Range creation operator. Returns a range with the specified first and last integers.

If last is larger than first, the range will be increasing from first to last. If first is larger than last, the range will be decreasing from first to last. If first is equal to last, the range will contain one element, which is the number itself.

Examples

iex> 0 in 1..3
false

iex> 1 in 1..3
true

iex> 2 in 1..3
true

iex> 3 in 1..3
true

Boolean "not" operator.

Receives any value (not just booleans) and returns true if value is false or nil; returns false otherwise.

Not allowed in guard clauses.

Examples

iex> !Enum.empty?([])
false

iex> !List.first([])
true

Binary concatenation operator. Concatenates two binaries.

Examples

iex> "foo" <> "bar"
"foobar"

The <>/2 operator can also be used in pattern matching (and guard clauses) as long as the left argument is a literal binary:

iex> "foo" <> x = "foobar"
iex> x
"bar"

x <> "bar" = "foobar" would have resulted in a CompileError exception.

@spec String.t() =~ (String.t() | Regex.t()) :: boolean()

Text-based match operator. Matches the term on the left against the regular expression or string on the right.

If right is a regular expression, returns true if left matches right.

If right is a string, returns true if left contains right.

Examples

iex> "abcd" =~ ~r/c(d)/
true

iex> "abcd" =~ ~r/e/
false

iex> "abcd" =~ ~r//
true

iex> "abcd" =~ "bc"
true

iex> "abcd" =~ "ad"
false

iex> "abcd" =~ "abcd"
true

iex> "abcd" =~ ""
true

Module attribute unary operator. Reads and writes attributes in the current module.

The canonical example for attributes is annotating that a module implements an OTP behaviour, such as GenServer:

defmodule MyServer do
  @behaviour GenServer
  # ... callbacks ...
end

By default Elixir supports all the module attributes supported by Erlang, but custom attributes can be used as well:

defmodule MyServer do
  @my_data 13
  IO.inspect(@my_data)
  #=> 13
end

Unlike Erlang, such attributes are not stored in the module by default since it is common in Elixir to use custom attributes to store temporary data that will be available at compile-time. Custom attributes may be configured to behave closer to Erlang by using Module.register_attribute/3.

Finally, note that attributes can also be read inside functions:

defmodule MyServer do
  @my_data 11
  def first_data, do: @my_data
  @my_data 13
  def second_data, do: @my_data
end

MyServer.first_data()
#=> 11

MyServer.second_data()
#=> 13

It is important to note that reading an attribute takes a snapshot of its current value. In other words, the value is read at compilation time and not at runtime. Check the Module module for other functions to manipulate module attributes.

When used inside quoting, marks that the given alias should not be hygienized. This means the alias will be expanded when the macro is expanded.

Check Kernel.SpecialForms.quote/2 for more information.

@spec apply((... -> any()), [any()]) :: any()

Invokes the given anonymous function fun with the list of arguments args.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

iex> apply(fn x -> x * 2 end, [2])
4

@spec apply(module(), function_name :: atom(), [any()]) :: any()

Invokes the given function from module with the list of arguments args.

apply/3 is used to invoke functions where the module, function name or arguments are defined dynamically at runtime. For this reason, you can't invoke macros using apply/3, only functions.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

iex> apply(Enum, :reverse, [[1, 2, 3]])
[3, 2, 1]

Returns the binding for the given context as a keyword list.

In the returned result, keys are variable names and values are the corresponding variable values.

If the given context is nil (by default it is), the binding for the current context is returned.

Examples

iex> x = 1
iex> binding()
[x: 1]
iex> x = 2
iex> binding()
[x: 2]

iex> binding(:foo)
[]
iex> var!(x, :foo) = 1
1
iex> binding(:foo)
[x: 1]

Defines a public function with the given name and body.

Examples

defmodule Foo do
  def bar, do: :baz
end

Foo.bar()
#=> :baz

A function that expects arguments can be defined as follows:

defmodule Foo do
  def sum(a, b) do
    a + b
  end
end

In the example above, a sum/2 function is defined; this function receives two arguments and returns their sum.

Default arguments

\\ is used to specify a default value for a parameter of a function. For example:

defmodule MyMath do
  def multiply_by(number, factor \\ 2) do
    number * factor
  end
end

MyMath.multiply_by(4, 3)
#=> 12

MyMath.multiply_by(4)
#=> 8

The compiler translates this into multiple functions with different arities, here MyMath.multiply_by/1 and MyMath.multiply_by/2, that represent cases when arguments for parameters with default values are passed or not passed.

When defining a function with default arguments as well as multiple explicitly declared clauses, you must write a function head that declares the defaults. For example:

defmodule MyString do
  def join(string1, string2 \\ nil, separator \\ " ")

  def join(string1, nil, _separator) do
    string1
  end

  def join(string1, string2, separator) do
    string1 <> separator <> string2
  end
end

Note that \\ can't be used with anonymous functions because they can only have a sole arity.

Function and variable names

Function and variable names have the following syntax: A lowercase ASCII letter or an underscore, followed by any number of lowercase or uppercase ASCII letters, numbers, or underscores. Optionally they can end in either an exclamation mark or a question mark.

For variables, any identifier starting with an underscore should indicate an unused variable. For example:

def foo(bar) do
  []
end
#=> warning: variable bar is unused

def foo(_bar) do
  []
end
#=> no warning

def foo(_bar) do
  _bar
end
#=> warning: the underscored variable "_bar" is used after being set

rescue/catch/after/else

Function bodies support rescue, catch, after, and else as Kernel.SpecialForms.try/1 does (known as "implicit try"). For example, the following two functions are equivalent:

def convert(number) do
  try do
    String.to_integer(number)
  rescue
    e in ArgumentError -> {:error, e.message}
  end
end

def convert(number) do
  String.to_integer(number)
rescue
  e in ArgumentError -> {:error, e.message}
end

Defines a function that delegates to another module.

Functions defined with defdelegate/2 are public and can be invoked from outside the module they're defined in, as if they were defined using def/2. Therefore, defdelegate/2 is about extending the current module's public API. If what you want is to invoke a function defined in another module without using its full module name, then use alias/2 to shorten the module name or use import/2 to be able to invoke the function without the module name altogether.

Delegation only works with functions; delegating macros is not supported.

Check def/2 for rules on naming and default arguments.

Options

• :to - the module to dispatch to.

• :as - the function to call on the target given in :to. This parameter is optional and defaults to the name being delegated (funs).

Examples

defmodule MyList do
  defdelegate reverse(list), to: Enum
  defdelegate other_reverse(list), to: Enum, as: :reverse
end

MyList.reverse([1, 2, 3])
#=> [3, 2, 1]

MyList.other_reverse([1, 2, 3])
#=> [3, 2, 1]

Defines an exception.

Exceptions are structs backed by a module that implements the Exception behaviour. The Exception behaviour requires two functions to be implemented:

• exception/1 - receives the arguments given to raise/2 and returns the exception struct. The default implementation accepts either a set of keyword arguments that is merged into the struct or a string to be used as the exception's message.

• message/1 - receives the exception struct and must return its message. Most commonly exceptions have a message field which by default is accessed by this function. However, if an exception does not have a message field, this function must be explicitly implemented.

Since exceptions are structs, the API supported by defstruct/1 is also available in defexception/1.

Raising exceptions

The most common way to raise an exception is via raise/2:

defmodule MyAppError do
  defexception [:message]
end

value = [:hello]

raise MyAppError,
  message: "did not get what was expected, got: #{inspect(value)}"

In many cases it is more convenient to pass the expected value to raise/2 and generate the message in the Exception.exception/1 callback:

defmodule MyAppError do
  defexception [:message]

  @impl true
  def exception(value) do
    msg = "did not get what was expected, got: #{inspect(value)}"
    %MyAppError{message: msg}
  end
end

raise MyAppError, value

The example above shows the preferred strategy for customizing exception messages.

@spec defguard(Macro.t()) :: Macro.t()

Generates a macro suitable for use in guard expressions.

It raises at compile time if the definition uses expressions that aren't allowed in guards, and otherwise creates a macro that can be used both inside or outside guards.

Note the convention in Elixir is to name functions/macros allowed in guards with the is_ prefix, such as is_list/1. If, however, the function/macro returns a boolean and is not allowed in guards, it should have no prefix and end with a question mark, such as Keyword.keyword?/1.

Example

defmodule Integer.Guards do
  defguard is_even(value) when is_integer(value) and rem(value, 2) == 0
end

defmodule Collatz do
  @moduledoc "Tools for working with the Collatz sequence."
  import Integer.Guards

  @doc "Determines the number of steps `n` takes to reach `1`."
  # If this function never converges, please let me know what `n` you used.
  def converge(n) when n > 0, do: step(n, 0)

  defp step(1, step_count) do
    step_count
  end

  defp step(n, step_count) when is_even(n) do
    step(div(n, 2), step_count + 1)
  end

  defp step(n, step_count) do
    step(3 * n + 1, step_count + 1)
  end
end

@spec defguardp(Macro.t()) :: Macro.t()

Generates a private macro suitable for use in guard expressions.

It raises at compile time if the definition uses expressions that aren't allowed in guards, and otherwise creates a private macro that can be used both inside or outside guards in the current module.

Similar to defmacrop/2, defguardp/1 must be defined before its use in the current module.

Defines an implementation for the given protocol.

See the Protocol module for more information.

Defines a public macro with the given name and body.

Macros must be defined before its usage.

Check def/2 for rules on naming and default arguments.

Examples

defmodule MyLogic do
  defmacro unless(expr, opts) do
    quote do
      if !unquote(expr), unquote(opts)
    end
  end
end

require MyLogic

MyLogic.unless false do
  IO.puts("It works")
end

Defines a private macro with the given name and body.

Private macros are only accessible from the same module in which they are defined.

Private macros must be defined before its usage.

Check defmacro/2 for more information, and check def/2 for rules on naming and default arguments.

Defines a module given by name with the given contents.

This macro defines a module with the given alias as its name and with the given contents. It returns a tuple with four elements:

• :module
• the module name
• the binary contents of the module
• the result of evaluating the contents block

Examples

defmodule Number do
  def one, do: 1
  def two, do: 2
end
#=> {:module, Number, <<70, 79, 82, ...>>, {:two, 0}}

Number.one()
#=> 1

Number.two()
#=> 2

Nesting

Nesting a module inside another module affects the name of the nested module:

defmodule Foo do
  defmodule Bar do
  end
end

In the example above, two modules - Foo and Foo.Bar - are created. When nesting, Elixir automatically creates an alias to the inner module, allowing the second module Foo.Bar to be accessed as Bar in the same lexical scope where it's defined (the Foo module). This only happens if the nested module is defined via an alias.

If the Foo.Bar module is moved somewhere else, the references to Bar in the Foo module need to be updated to the fully-qualified name (Foo.Bar) or an alias has to be explicitly set in the Foo module with the help of Kernel.SpecialForms.alias/2.

defmodule Foo.Bar do
  # code
end

defmodule Foo do
  alias Foo.Bar
  # code here can refer to "Foo.Bar" as just "Bar"
end

Dynamic names

Elixir module names can be dynamically generated. This is very useful when working with macros. For instance, one could write:

defmodule String.to_atom("Foo#{1}") do
  # contents ...
end

Elixir will accept any module name as long as the expression passed as the first argument to defmodule/2 evaluates to an atom. Note that, when a dynamic name is used, Elixir won't nest the name under the current module nor automatically set up an alias.

Reserved module names

If you attempt to define a module that already exists, you will get a warning saying that a module has been redefined.

There are some modules that Elixir does not currently implement but it may be implement in the future. Those modules are reserved and defining them will result in a compilation error:

defmodule Any do
  # code
end
** (CompileError) iex:1: module Any is reserved and cannot be defined

Elixir reserves the following module names: Elixir, Any, BitString, PID, and Reference.

Makes the given functions in the current module overridable.

An overridable function is lazily defined, allowing a developer to override it.

Macros cannot be overridden as functions and vice-versa.

Example

defmodule DefaultMod do
  defmacro __using__(_opts) do
    quote do
      def test(x, y) do
        x + y
      end

      defoverridable test: 2
    end
  end
end

defmodule InheritMod do
  use DefaultMod

  def test(x, y) do
    x * y + super(x, y)
  end
end

As seen as in the example above, super can be used to call the default implementation.

If @behaviour has been defined, defoverridable can also be called with a module as an argument. All implemented callbacks from the behaviour above the call to defoverridable will be marked as overridable.

Example

defmodule Behaviour do
  @callback foo :: any
end

defmodule DefaultMod do
  defmacro __using__(_opts) do
    quote do
      @behaviour Behaviour

      def foo do
        "Override me"
      end

      defoverridable Behaviour
    end
  end
end

defmodule InheritMod do
  use DefaultMod

  def foo do
    "Overridden"
  end
end

Defines a private function with the given name and body.

Private functions are only accessible from within the module in which they are defined. Trying to access a private function from outside the module it's defined in results in an UndefinedFunctionError exception.

Check def/2 for more information.

Examples

defmodule Foo do
  def bar do
    sum(1, 2)
  end

  defp sum(a, b), do: a + b
end

Foo.bar()
#=> 3

Foo.sum(1, 2)
** (UndefinedFunctionError) undefined function Foo.sum/2

Defines a protocol.

See the Protocol module for more information.

Defines a struct.

A struct is a tagged map that allows developers to provide default values for keys, tags to be used in polymorphic dispatches and compile time assertions.

To define a struct, a developer must define both __struct__/0 and __struct__/1 functions. defstruct/1 is a convenience macro which defines such functions with some conveniences.

For more information about structs, please check Kernel.SpecialForms.%/2.

Examples

defmodule User do
  defstruct name: nil, age: nil
end

Struct fields are evaluated at compile-time, which allows them to be dynamic. In the example below, 10 + 11 is evaluated at compile-time and the age field is stored with value 21:

defmodule User do
  defstruct name: nil, age: 10 + 11
end

The fields argument is usually a keyword list with field names as atom keys and default values as corresponding values. defstruct/1 also supports a list of atoms as its argument: in that case, the atoms in the list will be used as the struct's field names and they will all default to nil.

defmodule Post do
  defstruct [:title, :content, :author]
end

Deriving

Although structs are maps, by default structs do not implement any of the protocols implemented for maps. For example, attempting to use a protocol with the User struct leads to an error:

john = %User{name: "John"}
MyProtocol.call(john)
** (Protocol.UndefinedError) protocol MyProtocol not implemented for %User{...}

defstruct/1, however, allows protocol implementations to be derived. This can be done by defining a @derive attribute as a list before invoking defstruct/1:

defmodule User do
  @derive [MyProtocol]
  defstruct name: nil, age: 10 + 11
end

MyProtocol.call(john) # it works!

For each protocol in the @derive list, Elixir will assert the protocol has been implemented for Any. If the Any implementation defines a __deriving__/3 callback, the callback will be invoked and it should define the implementation module. Otherwise an implementation that simply points to the Any implementation is automatically derived. For more information on the __deriving__/3 callback, see Protocol.derive/3.

Enforcing keys

When building a struct, Elixir will automatically guarantee all keys belongs to the struct:

%User{name: "john", unknown: :key}
** (KeyError) key :unknown not found in: %User{age: 21, name: nil}

Elixir also allows developers to enforce certain keys must always be given when building the struct:

defmodule User do
  @enforce_keys [:name]
  defstruct name: nil, age: 10 + 11
end

Now trying to build a struct without the name key will fail:

%User{age: 21}
** (ArgumentError) the following keys must also be given when building struct User: [:name]

Keep in mind @enforce_keys is a simple compile-time guarantee to aid developers when building structs. It is not enforced on updates and it does not provide any sort of value-validation.

Types

It is recommended to define types for structs. By convention such type is called t. To define a struct inside a type, the struct literal syntax is used:

defmodule User do
  defstruct name: "John", age: 25
  @type t :: %__MODULE__{name: String.t(), age: non_neg_integer}
end

It is recommended to only use the struct syntax when defining the struct's type. When referring to another struct it's better to use User.t instead of %User{}.

The types of the struct fields that are not included in %User{} default to term() (see term/0).

Structs whose internal structure is private to the local module (pattern matching them or directly accessing their fields should not be allowed) should use the @opaque attribute. Structs whose internal structure is public should use @type.

Destructures two lists, assigning each term in the right one to the matching term in the left one.

Unlike pattern matching via =, if the sizes of the left and right lists don't match, destructuring simply stops instead of raising an error.

Examples

iex> destructure([x, y, z], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
iex> {x, y, z}
{1, 2, 3}

In the example above, even though the right list has more entries than the left one, destructuring works fine. If the right list is smaller, the remaining elements are simply set to nil:

iex> destructure([x, y, z], [1])
iex> {x, y, z}
{1, nil, nil}

The left-hand side supports any expression you would use on the left-hand side of a match:

x = 1
destructure([^x, y, z], [1, 2, 3])

The example above will only work if x matches the first value in the right list. Otherwise, it will raise a MatchError (like the = operator would do).

@spec exit(term()) :: no_return()

Stops the execution of the calling process with the given reason.

Since evaluating this function causes the process to terminate, it has no return value.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

When a process reaches its end, by default it exits with reason :normal. You can also call exit/1 explicitly if you want to terminate a process but not signal any failure:

exit(:normal)

In case something goes wrong, you can also use exit/1 with a different reason:

exit(:seems_bad)

If the exit reason is not :normal, all the processes linked to the process that exited will crash (unless they are trapping exits).

OTP exits

Exits are used by the OTP to determine if a process exited abnormally or not. The following exits are considered "normal":

• exit(:normal)
• exit(:shutdown)
• exit({:shutdown, term})

Exiting with any other reason is considered abnormal and treated as a crash. This means the default supervisor behaviour kicks in, error reports are emitted, and so forth.

This behaviour is relied on in many different places. For example, ExUnit uses exit(:shutdown) when exiting the test process to signal linked processes, supervision trees and so on to politely shut down too.

CLI exits

Building on top of the exit signals mentioned above, if the process started by the command line exits with any of the three reasons above, its exit is considered normal and the Operating System process will exit with status 0.

It is, however, possible to customize the operating system exit signal by invoking:

exit({:shutdown, integer})

This will cause the operating system process to exit with the status given by integer while signaling all linked Erlang processes to politely shut down.

Any other exit reason will cause the operating system process to exit with status 1 and linked Erlang processes to crash.

@spec function_exported?(module(), atom(), arity()) :: boolean()

Returns true if module is loaded and contains a public function with the given arity, otherwise false.

Note that this function does not load the module in case it is not loaded. Check Code.ensure_loaded/1 for more information.

Inlined by the compiler.

Examples

iex> function_exported?(Enum, :map, 2)
true

iex> function_exported?(Enum, :map, 10)
false

iex> function_exported?(List, :to_string, 1)
true

Gets a value and updates a nested data structure via the given path.

This is similar to get_and_update_in/3, except the path is extracted via a macro rather than passing a list. For example:

get_and_update_in(opts[:foo][:bar], &{&1, &1 + 1})

Is equivalent to:

get_and_update_in(opts, [:foo, :bar], &{&1, &1 + 1})

This also works with nested structs and the struct.path.to.value way to specify paths:

get_and_update_in(struct.foo.bar, &{&1, &1 + 1})

Note that in order for this macro to work, the complete path must always be visible by this macro. See the "Paths" section below.

Examples

iex> users = %{"john" => %{age: 27}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}
iex> get_and_update_in(users["john"].age, &{&1, &1 + 1})
{27, %{"john" => %{age: 28}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}}

Paths

A path may start with a variable, local or remote call, and must be followed by one or more:

• foo[bar] - accesses the key bar in foo; in case foo is nil, nil is returned

• foo.bar - accesses a map/struct field; in case the field is not present, an error is raised

Here are some valid paths:

users["john"][:age]
users["john"].age
User.all()["john"].age
all_users()["john"].age

Here are some invalid ones:

# Does a remote call after the initial value
users["john"].do_something(arg1, arg2)

# Does not access any key or field
users

@spec get_and_update_in(
  structure :: Access.t(),
  keys,
  (term() -> {get_value, update_value} | :pop)
) :: {get_value, structure :: Access.t()}
when keys: [any(), ...], update_value: term(), get_value: var

Gets a value and updates a nested structure.

data is a nested structure (that is, a map, keyword list, or struct that implements the Access behaviour).

The fun argument receives the value of key (or nil if key is not present) and must return one of the following values:

• a two-element tuple {get_value, new_value}. In this case, get_value is the retrieved value which can possibly be operated on before being returned. new_value is the new value to be stored under key.

• :pop, which implies that the current value under key should be removed from the structure and returned.

This function uses the Access module to traverse the structures according to the given keys, unless the key is a function, which is detailed in a later section.

Examples

This function is useful when there is a need to retrieve the current value (or something calculated in function of the current value) and update it at the same time. For example, it could be used to read the current age of a user while increasing it by one in one pass:

iex> users = %{"john" => %{age: 27}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}
iex> get_and_update_in(users, ["john", :age], &{&1, &1 + 1})
{27, %{"john" => %{age: 28}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}}

Functions as keys

If a key is a function, the function will be invoked passing three arguments:

• the operation (:get_and_update)
• the data to be accessed
• a function to be invoked next

This means get_and_update_in/3 can be extended to provide custom lookups. The downside is that functions cannot be stored as keys in the accessed data structures.

When one of the keys is a function, the function is invoked. In the example below, we use a function to get and increment all ages inside a list:

iex> users = [%{name: "john", age: 27}, %{name: "meg", age: 23}]
iex> all = fn :get_and_update, data, next ->
...>   data |> Enum.map(next) |> Enum.unzip()
...> end
iex> get_and_update_in(users, [all, :age], &{&1, &1 + 1})
{[27, 23], [%{name: "john", age: 28}, %{name: "meg", age: 24}]}

If the previous value before invoking the function is nil, the function will receive nil as a value and must handle it accordingly (be it by failing or providing a sane default).

The Access module ships with many convenience accessor functions, like the all anonymous function defined above. See Access.all/0, Access.key/2, and others as examples.

@spec get_in(Access.t(), [term(), ...]) :: term()

Gets a value from a nested structure.

Uses the Access module to traverse the structures according to the given keys, unless the key is a function, which is detailed in a later section.

Examples

iex> users = %{"john" => %{age: 27}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}
iex> get_in(users, ["john", :age])
27

In case any of the keys returns nil, nil will be returned:

iex> users = %{"john" => %{age: 27}, "meg" => %{age: 23}}
iex> get_in(users, ["unknown", :age])
nil

Functions as keys

If a key is a function, the function will be invoked passing three arguments:

• the operation (:get)
• the data to be accessed
• a function to be invoked next

This means get_in/2 can be extended to provide custom lookups. In the example below, we use a function to get all the maps inside a list:

iex> users = [%{name: "john", age: 27}, %{name: "meg", age: 23}]
iex> all = fn :get, data, next -> Enum.map(data, next) end
iex> get_in(users, [all, :age])
[27, 23]

If the previous value before invoking the function is nil, the function will receive nil as a value and must handle it accordingly.

The Access module ships with many convenience accessor functions, like the all anonymous function defined above. See Access.all/0, Access.key/2, and others as examples.

Provides an if/2 macro.

This macro expects the first argument to be a condition and the second argument to be a keyword list.

One-liner examples

if(foo, do: bar)

In the example above, bar will be returned if foo evaluates to a truthy value (neither false nor nil). Otherwise, nil will be returned.

An else option can be given to specify the opposite:

if(foo, do: bar, else: baz)

Blocks examples

It's also possible to pass a block to the if/2 macro. The first example above would be translated to:

if foo do
  bar
end

Note that do/end become delimiters. The second example would translate to:

if foo do
  bar
else
  baz
end

In order to compare more than two clauses, the cond/1 macro has to be used.

@spec inspect(Inspect.t(), keyword()) :: String.t()

Inspects the given argument according to the Inspect protocol. The second argument is a keyword list with options to control inspection.

Options

inspect/2 accepts a list of options that are internally translated to an Inspect.Opts struct. Check the docs for Inspect.Opts to see the supported options.

Examples

iex> inspect(:foo)
":foo"

iex> inspect([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], limit: 3)
"[1, 2, 3, ...]"

iex> inspect([1, 2, 3], pretty: true, width: 0)
"[1,\n 2,\n 3]"

iex> inspect("olá" <> <<0>>)
"<<111, 108, 195, 161, 0>>"

iex> inspect("olá" <> <<0>>, binaries: :as_strings)
"\"olá\\0\""

iex> inspect("olá", binaries: :as_binaries)
"<<111, 108, 195, 161>>"

iex> inspect('bar')
"'bar'"

iex> inspect([0 | 'bar'])
"[0, 98, 97, 114]"

iex> inspect(100, base: :octal)
"0o144"

iex> inspect(100, base: :hex)
"0x64"

Note that the Inspect protocol does not necessarily return a valid representation of an Elixir term. In such cases, the inspected result must start with #. For example, inspecting a function will return:

inspect(fn a, b -> a + b end)
#=> #Function<...>

The Inspect protocol can be derived to hide certain fields from structs, so they don't show up in logs, inspects and similar. See the "Deriving" section of the documentation of the Inspect protocol for more information.